• Virtual Bridge Experiment
  
• Build a Straw Bridge 1
  
• Build a Straw Bridge 2
  
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• Building Model Bridges, Activities and Lesson Plans
  
• How Much Weight Can That Bridge Take? The Impact of Structural Support Elements on the Strength of a Bridge
  
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• Investigate trusses: types, loads, tensile and compressive members
  
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• Bridge lesson plan: bridge type: suspension, beam, and arch.
  

Arch Bridge
Double arch stone bridge, Japan
Ancestor:	Clapper bridge
Related:	None
Descendant:	Truss arch bridge, moon bridge (masonry)
Carries:	Pedestrians, vehicles, light rail, heavy rail, water
Span range:	short, but often set end-to-end to form a large total length
Material:	masonry, concrete, wrought iron, cast iron, timber, structural steel
Movable:	No
Design effort:	Low
Falsework required:	Yes

An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side. A viaduct (a long bridge) may be made from a series of arches, although other more economical structures are typically used today.

History

Stone arches were first invented around 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization, known by the ancient Greeks, but developed most fully for bridges by the ancient Romans.

The 1,400 year old Zhaozhou Bridge of China

In China, the oldest existing bridge is the Zhaozhou Bridge of 605 AD (although bridges were built since the ancient Zhou Dynasty), which combined a very low span-to-rise ratio with the use of weight-relieving spandrel arches (buttressed with iron brackets). The Zhaozhou Bridge is the world's first wholly-stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge.^[1]

Most Roman arch bridges were semicircular, although some were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). Generally, in any Roman bridge all of the wedge-shaped primary arch stones (voussoirs) were the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Trajan's bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on concrete piers), making it the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length.

In medieval Europe, bridge builders improved on the Roman structures by using narrower piers, thinner arch barrels and lower span-rise ratios on bridges. Gothic pointed arches were also introduced, reducing lateral thrust, and spans increased. Bridge building reached new heights with constructions such as the Florentine Ponte Vecchio (1345), featuring an unprecedented span-to-rise ratio of over 6 to 1; the bridge at Trezzo sull'Adda, destroyed in the 15th century, with a world record span length of 72 m, or the Renaissance Ponte Santa Trinita (1569), constituting the oldest elliptic arch bridge worldwide.

In more modern times, stone and brick arches continued to be built by many civil engineers, including Thomas Telford, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and John Rennie. A key pioneer was Jean-Rodolphe Perronet, who used much narrower piers, revised calculation methods and exceptionally low span-to-rise ratios. Different materials, such as cast iron, steel and concrete have been increasingly used in the construction of arch bridges.

Simple compression arch bridges

Falsework centering in the center arch of Monroe Street Bridge, Spokane, Washington. 1911.

Advantage in use of simple materials

Stone, brick and other such materials are strong in compression and somewhat so in shear, but cannot resist much force in tension. As a result, masonry arch bridges are designed to be constantly under compression, so far as is possible. Each arch is constructed over a temporary falsework frame, known as a centering. In the first compression arch bridges, a keystone in the middle of the bridge bore the weight of the rest of the bridge. The more weight that was put onto the bridge, the stronger its structure became. Masonry arch bridges use a quantity of fill material (typically compacted rubble) above the arch in order to increase this dead-weight on the bridge and prevent tension from occurring in the arch ring as loads move across the bridge. Other materials that were used to build this type of bridge were brick and unreinforced concrete. When masonry (cut stone) is used the angles of the faces are cut to minimize shear forces. Where random masonry (uncut and unprepared stones) is used they are mortared together and the mortar is allowed to set before the falsework is removed.

Traditional masonry arches are generally durable, and somewhat resistant to settlement or undermining. However, relative to modern alternatives, such bridges are very heavy, requiring extensive foundations. They are also expensive to build wherever labour costs are high.

Construction sequence

The remains of the Frere Bridge over Orange River in Aliwal North. Note the lifting holes visible on some of the stones.

• Where the arches are founded in a stream bed the water is diverted and the gravels excavated to a good footing. From this the foundation piers are raised to the base of the arches, a point known as the springing.
• Falsework centering is fabricated, typically from timbers and boards. Since each arch of a multi-arch bridge will impose a thrust upon its neighbors, it is necessary either that all arches of the bridge be raised at the same time, or that very wide piers are used. The thrust from the end arches is taken into the earth by footings at the canyon walls, or by large inclined planes forming ramps to the bridge, which may also be formed of arches.
• The several arches are constructed over the centering. Once the basic arch barrel is constructed, the arches are stabilized with infill masonry between the arches, which may be laid in horizontal running bond courses. These may form two walls, known as the spandrels, which are then infilled with loose material and rubble.
• The road is paved and parapet walls protectively confine traffic to the bridge.

Types of arch bridge

The Pont du Gard aqueduct showing the Roman technique of building multiple arch structures atop each other.	These Harlem River bridges are all supported deck arch bridges.	The center span of the deck of the Fremont Bridge is suspended and the deck acts as a tie, while the side spans of the deck are supported.
The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a Truss type suspended deck arch bridge, constructed as two approaching cantilevers.	A masonry moon bridge showing the buttressing approach ramps that take the horizontal thrust of the arch

Aqueducts and canal viaducts

• In some locations it is necessary to span a wide gap at a relatively high elevation, such as when a canal or water supply must span a valley. Rather than building extremely large arches, or very tall supporting columns (difficult using stone), a series of arched structures are built one atop another, with wider structures at the base. Roman civil engineers developed the design and constructed highly refined structures using only simple materials, equipment, and mathematics. This type is still used in canal viaducts and roadways as it has a pleasing shape, particularly when spanning water, as the reflections of the arches form a visual impression of circles or ellipses.

Supported deck arch bridge

This type of bridge comprises an arch which supports a deck by means of a number of vertical columns. The Alexander Hamilton Bridge is a supported deck arch bridge.

Suspended deck arch bridge

This type of bridge comprises an arch which supports the deck by means of suspension cables or tie bars. The Sydney Harbour Bridge is a suspended deck arch bridge which uses a truss type arch.

These suspended deck bridges are in contrast to suspension bridges which use the catenary to which the aforementioned cables or tie bars are attached and suspended. While in fact all proper arches use predominantly the compressive strength of materials, this type of bridge is also referred to as the Compression arch suspended-deck bridge.

Tied arch bridge

This type of arch bridge incorporates a tie between two opposite ends of the arch. The tie is capable of withstanding the horizontal thrust forces which would normally be exerted on the abutments of an arch bridge.

Use of modern materials

In Thüringen, Germany

Most modern compression arch bridges are made from reinforced concrete. This type of bridge is suitable where a temporary centering may be erected to support the forms, reinforcing steel, and uncured concrete. When the concrete is sufficiently set the forms and falseworks are then removed. It is also possible to construct a reinforced concrete arch from precast concrete, where the arch is built in two halves which are then leaned against each other.

Many modern bridges, made of steel or reinforced concrete, often bear some of their load by tension within their structure. This reduces or eliminates the horizontal thrust against the abutments and allows their construction on weaker ground. Structurally and analytically they are not true arches but rather a beam with the shape of an arch. See truss arch bridge for more on this type.

A modern evolution of the arch bridge is the compression arch suspended-deck bridge (through arch bridge). This has been made possible by the use of light materials that are strong in tension such as steel, reinforced concrete, and post-tensioned concrete.

Gallery of images

A small triple arch pedestrian bridge in Bourton-on-the-Water, England.	A moon bridge (Jade Belt Bridge, Summer Palace, Beijing) with stone ramps forming buttresses.	Modern reinforced concrete arch bridges. The bridge in the background is a replacement to span a tributary stream of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) in the now-flooded Three Gorges, China.	Cleveland House on stone arch over Bath Locks on the Kennet and Avon Canal, with cast iron arch bridge in front.
The Danube at Regensburg is spanned by medieval Europe's first major stone arch bridge, built 1135-46.

See also

• List of arch bridges by length
• Truss arch bridge
• Compression arch suspended-deck bridge
• Tied arch bridge

Footnotes

External links

General

• NOVA Online - Super Bridge - Arch Bridges
• Matsuo Bridge Co. - Arch Bridges
• Historic Bridges of the Midwest
• Historic Arch Railroad Bridges in Western Massachusetts

Software

• ring2.0 masonry arch bridge analysis software
• ArchieM masonry arch bridge analysis software

This list of the largest arch bridges ranks the world's arch bridges by the length of their main span. The length of the main span is the most common way to rank arch bridges. If one bridge has a longer span than another it does not necessarily mean that the bridge is longer from shore to shore or from anchorage to anchorage. The size of the main span may not always correlate with the engineering complexity involved in designing and constructing the bridge. However, the total length of bridges cannot be compared as there is no standard way to measure the total length of a bridge.

The list may be incomplete.

	Rank	Name	Span metres (feet)	Length metres (feet)	Arch construction material	Completed	Location	Country
	[1]	Lupu Bridge	550 m (1,804 ft)	3,900 m (12,795 ft)	steel/concrete	2003	Shanghai	People's Republic of China
	[2]	New River Gorge Bridge	518 m (1,699 ft)	924 m (3,031 ft)	steel	1977	Fayetteville, West Virginia	United States
	[3]	Bayonne Bridge	504 m (1,654 ft)	1,761 m (5,778 ft)	steel	1931	Kill Van Kull (New Jersey, New York)	United States
	[4]	Sydney Harbour Bridge	503 m (1,650 ft)	1,149 m (3,770 ft)	steel	1932	Sydney	Australia
Linked photo	[5]	Wushan Bridge	460 m (1,509 ft)	??	steel/concrete	2005	Chongqing	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[6]	Wanxian Bridge	420 m (1,378 ft)	864 m (2,835 ft)	concrete	1997	Wanxian	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[7]	Caiyuanba Bridge	420 m (1,378 ft)	1,741 m (5,712 ft)	steel	2007[1]	Chongqing	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[8]	Fourth Xiangtan Bridge	400 m (1,312 ft)	1,345 m (4,413 ft)	steel/concrete	2007[2]	Xiangtan	People's Republic of China
	[9]	Krk Bridge	390 m (1,280 ft)	1,430 m (4,692 ft)	concrete	1980	Krk	Croatia
	[10]	Fremont Bridge	382 m (1,253 ft)	656 m (2,152 ft)	steel	1973	Portland, Oregon	United States
	[11]	Žďákov Bridge	380 m (1,247 ft)	543 m (1,781 ft)	steel	1967	Orlík nad Vltavou	Czech Republic
	[12]	Maochaojie Bridge	368 m (1,207 ft)	??	steel/concrete	2005	Chongqing	People's Republic of China
	[13]	Port Mann Bridge	366 m (1,201 ft)	2,093 m (6,867 ft)	steel	1964	Surrey, British Columbia	Canada
[14]	[15]	Yanjisha Bridge	360 m (1,181 ft)	1,084 m (3,556 ft)	steel, concrete	2000	Guangzhou	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[16]	Cold Spring Canyon Arch Bridge	350 m (1,148 ft)	371 m (1,217 ft)	steel	1963	Santa Barbara County, California	United States
Linked photo	[17]	Nanning Yonghe Bridge	350 m (1,148 ft)	??	steel	2004	Nanning	People's Republic of China
	[18]	Bridge of the Americas	344 m (1,129 ft)	1,654 m (5,427 ft)	steel	1962	Balboa, Panama	Panama
	[19]	Laviolette Bridge	335 m (1,099 ft)	2,707 m (8,881 ft)	steel	1967	Trois-Rivières	Canada
Linked photo	[20]	Jiangjiehe Bridge	330 m (1,083 ft)	461 m (1,512 ft)	concrete	1993	Wengan	People's Republic of China
	[21]	Silver Jubilee Bridge	330 m (1,083 ft)	??	steel	1961	Widnes/Runcorn	United Kingdom
	[22]	Roosevelt Lake Bridge	329 m (1,079 ft)	??	steel	1990	Theodore Roosevelt Lake, Arizona	United States
	[23]	Birchenough Bridge	329 m (1,079 ft)	377 m (1,237 ft)	steel	1935		Zimbabwe
Linked photo	[24]	Gerald Desmond Bridge	321 m (1,053 ft)	1,565 m (5,135 ft)	steel	1968	Terminal Island, California	United States
	[25]	Glen Canyon Dam Bridge	313 m (1,027 ft)	387 m (1,270 ft)	steel	1964	Arizona	United States
Linked photo	[26]	Yongjiang Bridge	312 m (1,024 ft)	??	concrete	1996	Yongning	People's Republic of China
	[27]	Hell Gate Bridge	310 m (1,017 ft)	5,182 m (17,001 ft)	steel	1916	New York	United States
	[28]	Dunaújvárosi Bridge	308 m (1,010 ft)	1,670 m (5,479 ft)	steel	2007	Dunaújváros	Hungary
Linked photo	[29]	Chunan Nanpu Bridge	308 m (1,010 ft)	??	??	2003		People's Republic of China
	[30]	Lewiston-Queenston Bridge	305 m (1,001 ft)	488 m (1,601 ft)	steel	1962	New York, Ontario	United States / Canada
Linked photo	[31]	Shin Kizugawa Bridge	305 m (1,001 ft)	495 m (1,624 ft)	steel	1994	Osaka	Japan
	[32]	Perrine Bridge	303 m (994 ft)	457 m (1,499 ft)	steel	1974	Idaho	United States
	[33]	Gladesville Bridge	300 m (984 ft)	488 m (1,601 ft)	concrete	1964	Sydney	Australia
Linked photo	[34]	Seri Saujana Bridge	300 m (984 ft)	300 m (984 ft)	steel	2003	Putrajaya	Malaysia
Linked photo	[35]	Ohmishima Bridge	297 m (974 ft)	328 m (1,076 ft)	steel	1979	Ohmishima	Japan
	[36]	Friendship Bridge	290 m (951 ft)	552 m (1,811 ft)	concrete	1965		Paraguay /  Brazil
	[37]	Rainbow Bridge	289 m (948 ft)	442 m (1,450 ft)	steel	1941	New York, Ontario	United States / Canada
	[38]	Van Brienenoordbrug	288 m (945 ft)	1,320 m (4,331 ft)	steel	1965	Rotterdam	Netherlands
	[39]	Fengjie Meixi Bridge	288 m (945 ft)	??	steel/concrete	2001	Chongqing	People's Republic of China
	[40]	Infante D. Henrique Bridge	280 m (919 ft)	371 m (1,217 ft)	concrete	2002	Oporto	Portugal
	[41]	Third Hanjiang Bridge	280 m (919 ft)	??	??	2000		People's Republic of China
	[42]	Dongguang Shuidao Bridge	280 m (919 ft)	??	??	2005		People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[43]	Yumemai Bridge	280 m (919 ft)	878 m (2,881 ft)	steel	2001	Osaka	Japan
	[44]	Moundsville Bridge	278 m (912 ft)	??	steel	1986	Moundsville, West Virginia	United States
	[45]	Jefferson Barracks Bridge	277 m (909 ft)	1,219 m (3,999 ft)	steel	1983	Missouri, Illinois	United States
	[46]	Hernando de Soto Bridge	274 m (899 ft)	5,954 m (19,534 ft)	steel	1973	Arkansas, Tennessee	United States
	[47]	Bloukrans Bridge	272 m (892 ft)	451 m (1,480 ft)	concrete	1984	Nature's Valley	South Africa
	[48]	Arrabida Bridge	270 m (886 ft)	493 m (1,617 ft)	concrete	1963	Oporto	Portugal
	[49]	Sanan Yongjiang Bridge	270 m (886 ft)	??	concrete/steel	1998	Sanan	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[50]	Fujikawa Bridge	265 m (869 ft)	381 m (1,250 ft)	concrete	2005	Shizuoka	Japan
Linked photo	[51]	Sandö Bridge	264 m (866 ft)	810 m (2,657 ft)	concrete	1943	Kramfors	Sweden
Linked photo	[52]	Yibin Rongzhou Bridge	260 m (853 ft)	505 m (1,657 ft)	concrete	2004	Yibin	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[53]	Chitose Bridge	260 m (853 ft)	365 m (1,198 ft)	steel	2003	Osaka	Japan
Linked photo	[54]	Takamatu Bridge	260 m (853 ft)	??	concrete	2000	Miyazaki, Miyazaki	Japan
	[55]	Saigo Bridge	260 m (853 ft)	270 m (886 ft)	steel	1977	Okinoshima, Shimane	Japan
	[56]	Julien Dubuque Bridge	258 m (846 ft)	1,756 m (5,761 ft)	steel	1943	Iowa, Illinois	United States
	[57]	Zigui Bridge	256 m (840 ft)	??	steel	1998	Hubei	People's Republic of China
	[58]	Brücke der Solidarität	256 m (840 ft)	823 m (2,700 ft)	steel	1950	Duisburg	Germany
Linked photo	[59]	Kishiwada Bridge	255 m (837 ft)	445 m (1,460 ft)	concrete	1993	Osaka	Japan
	[60]	Los Tilos Arch	255 m (837 ft)	319 m (1,047 ft)	concrete	2004	Canary Islands	Spain
Linked photo	[61]	Shin Hamadera Bridge	254 m (833 ft)	??	steel	1994	Sakai, Osaka	Japan
	[62]	Wild Gera Viaduct	252 m (827 ft)	552 m (1,811 ft)	concrete	2000	Thuringian Forest	Germany
Linked photo	[63]	Nishinomiyako Bridge	252 m (827 ft)	??	steel	1994	Nishinomiya	Japan
	[64]	Bob Cummings Lincoln Trail Bridge	251 m (823 ft)	826 m (2,710 ft)	steel	1966	Indiana, Kentucky	United States
Linked photo	[65]	Chateaubriand Bridge	250 m (820 ft)	424 m (1,391 ft)	concrete	1991	Brittany	France
Linked photo	[66]	Hamm Railroad Bridge	250 m (820 ft)	813 m (2,667 ft)	steel	1987	Düsseldorf-Hamm	Germany
	[67]	Fehmarnsund Bridge	248 m (814 ft)	963 m (3,159 ft)	steel	1963	Großenbrode	Germany
	[68]	New Svinesund Bridge	247 m (810 ft)	704 m (2,310 ft)	concrete	2005	Svinesund	Sweden /  Norway
Linked photo	[69]	Šibenik Bridge	246 m (807 ft)	390 m (1,280 ft)	concrete	1966	Šibenik	Croatia
Linked photo	[70]	Barelang Bridge	245 m (804 ft)	385 m (1,263 ft)	concrete	1997		Indonesia
	[71]	Sherman Minton Bridge	244 m (801 ft)	626 m (2,054 ft)	steel	1962	Kentucky, Indiana	United States
	[72]	Waalbrug	244 m (801 ft)	604 m (1,982 ft)	steel	1936	Nijmegen	Netherlands
	[73]	Juscelino Kubitschek Bridge	240 m (787 ft)	1,200 m (3,937 ft)	steel	2002	Brasília	Brazil
Linked photo	[74]	Jinshajiang Bridge	240 m (787 ft)	388 m (1,273 ft)	concrete	1990	Yibin	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[75]	Xiaonanmen Bridge	240 m (787 ft)	??	concrete	1990	Yibin	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[76]	Beipanjiang Railroad Bridge	236 m (774 ft)	486 m (1,594 ft)	steel	2001	Guizhou	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[77]	Beppu Myoban Bridge	235 m (771 ft)	411 m (1,348 ft)	concrete	1989	Beppu	Japan
Linked photo	[78]	Irtysh River Bridge	231 m (758 ft)	1,302 m (4,272 ft)	steel	2004	Khanty-Mansiysk	Russia
	[79]	Most Apollo	231 m (758 ft)	854 m (2,802 ft)	steel	2005	Bratislava	Slovakia
	[80]	Ponte Bisantis	231 m (758 ft)	468 m (1,535 ft)	concrete	1962	Catanzaro	Italy
	[81]	Daniel Carter Beard Bridge	231 m (758 ft)	640 m (2,100 ft)	steel	1977	Ohio, Kentucky	United States
	[82]	Dreiländerbrücke	229 m (751 ft)	250 m (820 ft)	steel	2007	Basel	Switzerland
Linked photo	[83]	Zaporizhia Bridge	228 m (748 ft)	??	concrete	1952	Zaporizhia	Ukraine
Linked photo	[84]	FAI 24 Bridge	223 m (732 ft)	1,695 m (5,561 ft)	steel	1973	Kentucky, Illinois	United States
Linked photo	[85]	Kyll Valley bridge	223 m (732 ft)	645 m (2,116 ft)	concrete	1999	Wilsecker	Germany
	[86]	New Navajo Bridge	221 m (725 ft)	877 m (2,877 ft)	steel	1994	Arizona	United States
Linked photo	[87]	Alconétar Viaduct	220 m (722 ft)	400 m (1,312 ft)	steel	2006	Cáceres	Spain
Linked photo	[88]	Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge	216 m (709 ft)	7,657 m (25,121 ft)	steel	1992	Hubei	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[89]	Sakai Bridge	216 m (709 ft)	??	steel	1955	Nagasaki	Japan
Linked photo	[90]	Martin Gil Viaduct	210 m (689 ft)	408 m (1,339 ft)	concrete	1942	Zamora	Spain
	[91]	Kitakyushu Airport Access Bridge	210 m (689 ft)	2,100 m (6,890 ft)	steel	2005	Kitakyūshū	Japan
	[92]	Delaware River-Turnpike Toll Bridge	208 m (682 ft)	2,003 m (6,572 ft)	steel	1956	Pennsylvania, New Jersey	United States
	[93]	Västerbron	204 m (669 ft)	600 m (1,969 ft)	steel	1935	Stockholm	Sweden
Linked photo	[94]	Krka River Bridge	204 m (669 ft)	391 m (1,283 ft)	concrete	2004	Skradin	Croatia
	[95]	Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge	204 m (669 ft)	899 m (2,949 ft)	steel	1982	Iowa, Wisconsin	United States
Linked photo	[96]	Third Mianyang Bridge	202 m (663 ft)	??	steel/concrete	1997	Sichuan	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[97]	Maslenica Bridge	200 m (656 ft)	378 m (1,240 ft)	concrete	1997	Zadar	Croatia
Linked photo	[98]	Fuling Bridge	200 m (656 ft)	??	concrete	1989	Fuling	People's Republic of China
	[99]	Sanshi Bridge	200 m (656 ft)	??	steel	1995	Nanhai	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[100]	Fourth Qiantang River Bridge	196 m (643 ft)	1,376 m (4,514 ft)	concrete	1997	Hangzhou	People's Republic of China
Linked photo	[101]	Pag Bridge	195 m (640 ft)	300 m (984 ft)	concrete	1968		Croatia
Linked photo	[102]	Regenta Arch Bridge	190 m (623 ft)	381 m (1,250 ft)	concrete	1996	Asturias	Spain
	[103]	Nada Bridge	190 m (623 ft)	370 m (1,214 ft)	steel	1983	Kobe	Japan
many bridges with shorter span

Under construction

Name	Span metres (feet)	Length metres (feet)	Arch construction material	Expected completion	Location	Country	Reference
Chaotianmen Bridge	552 m (1,811 ft)	1,741 m (5,712 ft)	steel	2008	Chongqing	People's Republic of China	[3]
Xinguang Bridge	428 m (1,404 ft)	??	??	2008	Guangzhou	People's Republic of China	[4]
Mike O'Callaghan-Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge	329 m (1,079 ft)	579 m (1,900 ft)	concrete-steel	2010	Hoover Dam	United States

References

Figures from ranked table are referenced through rank column links.

See also

Bridge-related articles
Types of bridges	Moveable bridge · Beam bridge · Cantilever bridge · Arch bridge · Suspension bridge · Cable-stayed bridge · Truss bridge · Visual index to various types
Lists of Bridges	Notable bridges · By length · Longest suspension bridge spans · Largest cable-stayed bridges · Longest cantilever bridges · Arch bridges · Bridge disasters